冬季学期（A2）：
III. Multiple choice中的“questions for critical reading”
此题与秋季题型类似，故略去。
IV. Questions for thorough understanding and text analysis in critical thinking.（10分，2-3段落，本学期内容选择自教材Reader’s Choice本学期涉及的段落和篇章，以降低难度。）
该部分内容考察目标跟秋季也差不多，难度略有一丢丢提升。给个例题吧：

1. Read the following paragraph and answer the corresponding questions:
   Paragraph 2：The Bible, while mainly a theological document, is secondarily a book of history and geography. Selected historical...(略)
   A. Clearly, Sentence 1 is the topic sentence. Why is “while mainly a theological document” included into the this sentence?(2分)
   Answer for reference: This part, on the one hand, shows the author’s idea would not change or even challenge all people’s recognition of the Bible’s most important position as a theological document. On the other hand, it provides a context for the new idea of the author--a book of history and geography, that is to say, the “history and geography” are still relevant to theological content of the Bible.
   B. How is the main idea explained or supported? Is its explanation adequate enough, why or why not?（2分）经过秋季学期的学习，大家应该有所体验，学会分析了吧。
   Answer for reference: (略)

V. Questions for some general information of aspects of Chinese culture, as introduced by Insights into Chinese Culture. 3-4 sentences is enough for each question. Your score will be given according to the general understanding and specific exemplification conveyed by your writing. （15分：5题左右）

1. Explain Confucian doctrine of “Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you.” in your own words and give an example showing how it still works in modern China. (1+2 points)
   Answer for reference: This doctrine means if you don’t want to be treated by others in some way, you should make sure first that you don’t treat others that way (这不是唯一的句子，只要解释得合理就可以，可以paraphrase课本上的，也可以用自己的解释，但是都要合理。). It still holds true today for the Chinese. For example, we Chinese hate to be bullied by others, so, in international society, we would not bully other peoples or countries and we also condemn any bullying activities.
2. Great Wall is one of the symbols of China and it embodies a number of spirits still valued by the Chinese. Which one of the spirits do you think is the most important? Illustrate how this spirit still influences or directs our lives or country with an example.
   这个题目不是很难，就不给参考答案了。
   注意：以上的题目都要考察观点陈述，以及用例子对观点进行简单说明这一重要的学术技能及规范。例子没有标准答案，但是不能编造。要看清题目要求再回答，举例要扣准你的观点选择例子： 现代/古代，具有代表性的，讲出来大家都知道的例子。所以主语一般是，we Chinese, most Chinese, lots of Chinese... 或者类似这样的。有些例子可以比较具体到时间地点事件，有些则不需要，如第一题这个例子，要根据具体情况决定。

VI Academic Writing （10%）
Directions: In this section, you are required to write a Summary for the following passage in no more than ** （具体待定）words.
本题目原材料节选于Reader’s Choice本学期学习的篇章，包括课外阅读，小说暂时不包括在内。
注意：虽然是节选，仍然会按照学术规范注明原文出处，所以summary的第一句不仅要写出main idea,还要包括作者出处等基本信息，要按照学术规范，避免plagiarism，否则会扣分。也就是说，虽然是考试这种限时写作，但是要求仍然跟平常练习写summary是差不多的，只不过考试的原文比较短，而且不是新文章，降低了阅读的难度。

翻译总结一下题型

结合以上要求，结合我下面将要给你的中华文化读本内容，先理解中华文化读本讲了什么
模仿要求中V. Questions for Some General Information of Aspects of Chinese Culture 部分题目与要求，给中华文化读本每个章节出几道可能的，符合样式的题目。
仔细思考！！
反思你题目，比对，要有泛用性，我打算背了上考场的，要有泛用性

确定没有漏吗，没有漏了我给你的章节中的关键点！没有漏了可能的考点？结合要求，结合中华文化读本，给出完整

冬季学期（A2）：
III. Multiple choice中的“questions for critical reading”
此题与秋季题型类似，故略去。
IV. Questions for thorough understanding and text analysis in critical thinking.（10分，2-3段落，本学期内容选择自教材Reader’s Choice本学期涉及的段落和篇章，以降低难度。）
该部分内容考察目标跟秋季也差不多，难度略有一丢丢提升。给个例题吧：

1. Read the following paragraph and answer the corresponding questions:
   Paragraph 2：The Bible, while mainly a theological document, is secondarily a book of history and geography. Selected historical...(略)
   A. Clearly, Sentence 1 is the topic sentence. Why is “while mainly a theological document” included into the this sentence?(2分)
   Answer for reference: This part, on the one hand, shows the author’s idea would not change or even challenge all people’s recognition of the Bible’s most important position as a theological document. On the other hand, it provides a context for the new idea of the author--a book of history and geography, that is to say, the “history and geography” are still relevant to theological content of the Bible.
   B. How is the main idea explained or supported? Is its explanation adequate enough, why or why not?（2分）经过秋季学期的学习，大家应该有所体验，学会分析了吧。
   Answer for reference: (略)

V. Questions for some general information of aspects of Chinese culture, as introduced by Insights into Chinese Culture. 3-4 sentences is enough for each question. Your score will be given according to the general understanding and specific exemplification conveyed by your writing. （15分：5题左右）

1. Explain Confucian doctrine of “Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you.” in your own words and give an example showing how it still works in modern China. (1+2 points)
   Answer for reference: This doctrine means if you don’t want to be treated by others in some way, you should make sure first that you don’t treat others that way (这不是唯一的句子，只要解释得合理就可以，可以paraphrase课本上的，也可以用自己的解释，但是都要合理。). It still holds true today for the Chinese. For example, we Chinese hate to be bullied by others, so, in international society, we would not bully other peoples or countries and we also condemn any bullying activities.
2. Great Wall is one of the symbols of China and it embodies a number of spirits still valued by the Chinese. Which one of the spirits do you think is the most important? Illustrate how this spirit still influences or directs our lives or country with an example.
   这个题目不是很难，就不给参考答案了。
   注意：以上的题目都要考察观点陈述，以及用例子对观点进行简单说明这一重要的学术技能及规范。例子没有标准答案，但是不能编造。要看清题目要求再回答，举例要扣准你的观点选择例子： 现代/古代，具有代表性的，讲出来大家都知道的例子。所以主语一般是，we Chinese, most Chinese, lots of Chinese... 或者类似这样的。有些例子可以比较具体到时间地点事件，有些则不需要，如第一题这个例子，要根据具体情况决定。

VI Academic Writing （10%）
Directions: In this section, you are required to write a Summary for the following passage in no more than ** （具体待定）words.
本题目原材料节选于Reader’s Choice本学期学习的篇章，包括课外阅读，小说暂时不包括在内。
注意：虽然是节选，仍然会按照学术规范注明原文出处，所以summary的第一句不仅要写出main idea,还要包括作者出处等基本信息，要按照学术规范，避免plagiarism，否则会扣分。也就是说，虽然是考试这种限时写作，但是要求仍然跟平常练习写summary是差不多的，只不过考试的原文比较短，而且不是新文章，降低了阅读的难度。

结合以上要求，结合我下面将要给你的中华文化读本内容，先理解中华文化读本讲了什么
模仿要求中V. Questions for Some General Information of Aspects of Chinese Culture 部分题目与要求，给中华文化读本每个章节出几道可能的，符合样式的题目。
仔细思考！！
反思你题目，比对，要有泛用性，我打算背了上考场的，要有泛用性。不要漏！！每一个章节的关键点都要！！

Wisdom and Beliefs

Human beings have only one home under the heavens. How we arrange our domestic lives and how we live together in harmony is the essence of traditional Chinese thinking. First and foremost, Chinese culture regards human life as part of nature and, as such, the only way for us to survive is to live in harmony with nature. The fundamental significance of civilization lies in the creation of a peaceful world, which also requires avoiding conflict between humans and nature. Instead of dictating to nature, people should hold nature in awe and gratitude. A second characteristic of Chinese culture is its emphasis on harmonious human relationships. An individual cannot live without community and society. Thus Chinese culture strives to build a world of harmony based on friendship between individuals, mutual assistance between families, and respect between nations. Thirdly, Chinese thinking stresses self-reflection. People should not only understand the external world, but also and more importantly, improve their internal state of mind. Only after humans have cleared away any intentions of combating nature, are we able to live up to the philosophy of living in harmony with nature.

1. Confucian Thought on Heaven and Humanity

Confucius $551-479 BC$, known in China as Kongzi, given name Qiu and alias Zhongni, was a native of Zouyi $present-day Qufu in Shandong Province$ of the State of Lu during the Spring and Autumn Period $770-476 BC$. A great thinker, educator and founder of Confucianism, Confucius is an ancient sage to the Chinese people. His words and life story were recorded by his disciples and their students in The Analects $Lunyu$.

An enduring classic of Chinese culture, The Analects has influenced all thinkers, writers and politicians in the over-2,000-year-long history of China after Confucius. No scholar could truly understand this long-standing culture or the inner world of the ancient Chinese without this book.

Much of Confucian thought on Heaven and people represent universal human values. This is perhaps why Confucian thought in the 21st century still retains the interest of not only the Chinese but also people in other parts of the world.

Confucius on Heaven: the Source of Everything

In the Shang $1600-1046 BC$ and Zhou $1046-256 BC$ dynasties, the prevalent concept of "Heaven" was that of a personified god, which influenced Confucius. Generally, however, Confucius regarded "Heaven" as nature. He said, "Heaven does not speak in words. It speaks through the rotation of the four seasons and the growth of all living things." Obviously, Heaven equaled nature, in the eyes of Confucius. Moreover, nature was not a lifeless mechanism separate from humans; instead, it was the great world of life and the process of creation of life. Human life was part and parcel of nature as a whole.

Confucius' equation of Heaven with the creation of life was an innovative idea in his time. The natural process of life creation was the "way of Heaven." This idea was later developed in The Book of Changes $Yijing$, as it stated "Continuous creation of life is change."

As the natural process of creation of life, Heaven was the source of all living things and the source of all values. This was the "virtue of Heaven." Thus, The Book of Changes said, "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life."

In the natural process of creation of life, Heaven had its inner purpose in creating all things as well as protecting and improving life. Heaven had originated humanity, and humans were obliged to accomplish this purpose. In other words, humans are born with a sense of "heavenly mission," and this is the meaning of human life.

Confucian "Heaven" also had a certain sacred element, which was related to it being the source of life. Thus Confucius required people to hold Heaven in awe. He says that a person of virtue must "respect his heavenly mission," listen to and live out the purpose of Heaven by caring for and improving life.

Under the influence of Confucius, the ancient Chinese developed a sense of awe and belief in Heaven. To them, Heaven was the highest sacred being, with its profound mystery never to be fully understood by mortals. It was not a supernatural, personified deity, but was the world of ever-generating life. As the most intelligent of all beings, humans should take to heart the purpose of Heaven by cherishing life. If one remained "ignorant and disrespectful of one's heavenly mission" by killing or maiming life, one would be punished by Heaven. Confucius said, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." The Confucian respect for and belief in Heaven represented a form of religious spiritualism of the ancient Chinese.

In the 21st century, the Confucian caveat of "standing in awe of the ordinances of Heaven" still holds true, as human society begins to pay greater attention to ecological civilization. Humans should indeed listen to the voice of nature, respecting and loving it as the world of life. This is our sacred mission and gives value to all human life.

Confucius on People: **ren **$仁$ and li $礼$

Ren and li are the two core concepts of Confucius' doctrine about people.

When his student Fan Chi asked him about ren, Confucius replied, "Love of people." This is Confucius' most important interpretation of ren. Love for the people is universal love. Confucius further emphasized that this kind of love should "begin with the love of one's parents." He believed no one could love people in general if they did not even love their own parents. Confucius regarded "filial piety and fraternal duty" as the essence of ren. The Doctrine of the Mean $Zhongyong$ quotes Confucius as saying, "The greatest love for people is the love of one's parents." He also said, "Children should not travel far while their parents are alive. If they have no choice but to do so, they must retain some restraint." He did not mean that children should not leave their parents at all. What he meant was that children should not make their parents anxious about them while away from home. Confucius said again, "Children should think often of the age of their parents. They should feel happy for the health and longevity of their parents. They should also feel concern for the aging of their parents."

Cry of Deer in a Red Maple Forest $detail$, unknown artist, Song Dynasty, a scene of contentment and harmony, as valued by Confucian scholars

By ren, Confucius meant universal love based on love of one's parents. How should people love one another then? Confucius said, "One should be aware that other people may have similar desires as oneself. While fulfilling one's desires, allow others to fulfill their desires as well." He further said, "Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you." Thus from oneself to one's family, from family to society, one should extend love to all people. Mencius $c. 372-289 BC$, a great Confucian scholar, best summarized ren as, "loving one's parents, loving the people, loving everything in the world."

Today, the Confucian doctrine of "Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you" still holds true for humankind.

Li refers to rituals, traditions and norms in social life. Of these, Confucius regarded burial rituals and ancestral worship rituals as the most important, because they arose from human feelings. He said, "A child should not leave his parents' bosom until he is three years old." He naturally loved his parents. The ritual of wearing mourning for a deceased parent for three years was an expression of the child's love and remembrance.

Confucius placed emphasis on li with the aim of preserving social order, stability and harmony. The Analects says, "The role of li is to maintain harmony among people."

Li also has philosophical implications. While individuals have a limited lifespan, life in nature is everlasting. Life is given by one's parents and extended through one's children. In this way, a limited, individual life becomes merged with the limitless life of nature; the individual dream of eternal life can thus come true. Through burial rituals and ancestral worship rituals, people are able to experience the everlasting continuity of life, appreciating the value and meaning of life. This gives people metaphorical solace.

Confucius on the State of Life

Before Confucius, only the nobility had the right to education. He was the first figure in Chinese history to initiate private education. According to historical records, Confucius taught for many years and trained 3,000 disciples. A total of 72 of them excelled in the "six arts," i.e., ritual, music, archery, $carriage$ driving, calligraphy, and mathematics. A great educator, Confucius has been admired by later generations as the "sage of sages."

Confucius believed the basic goal of education was to cultivate "persons of virtue," who should have sound character and uplifted minds. Such persons should be able to shoulder important social responsibilities and to make contributions to society. Confucius regarded lofty ideals, great virtue, love of people, and the "six arts" as the general principles of education. Of these, virtue was the most important. His students were involved in a variety of professions, including politics, trade, education, diplomacy, ritual ceremony, and classifying ancient books. Whatever they did, they all wanted to improve their learning of the humanities and to enhance their virtue.

Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, "Studying The Book of Songs $Shijing$ inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying The Book of Rites $Zhouli$ enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment. Studying music lifts the spirit and helps one to enjoy life." He also said, "Simply knowing the highest standard of virtue $i.e., love of people$ is not as good as setting it as one's goal. Setting it as one's goal is not as good as enjoying the practice of it."

Three Masters Smiling beside Tiger Stream, unknown artist, Song Dynasty. Buddhist master Huiyuan $334-416$, of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, bids farewell to two honored visitors at sunset – Confucian scholar and poet Tao Yuanming $c. 365-427$, and Daoist high priest Lu Jingzhi $birth and death dates unknown$. They are smiling as they walk along, though they have crossed Tiger Stream without knowing it. Huiyuan has thus broken his own rule of not seeing guests off across Tiger Stream.

On one occasion, Confucius asked several of his disciples to talk about their aspirations. Zi Lu and Ran You wanted the opportunity to administer a state. Gongsun Chi wanted to become a master of rituals. Zeng Dian said, "My aspiration is different from theirs." "That is acceptable," said Confucius. "We are only talking about our own aspirations." Zeng Dian then said, “$My dream$ is to wear spring robes in late spring and to swim in the Yi River with five or six adults and six or seven children. We shall enjoy the breeze where people pray for rain. Then we shall go home, singing all the way." Confucius sighed, "Ah, I share Dian's aspiration." The different aspirations of the four students reflected their different outlooks on life. Confucius' agreement with Zeng Dian indicates that while he stressed individual contribution to society, he regarded the highest state of life as harmony among people and harmony between people and nature. His was a true aesthetic outlook on life.

A page from The Analects, with annotations by Zhu Xi $1130-1200$, a great Confucian scholar of the Song Dynasty

Hanbi Pavillion in Jichang Garden, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. "Hanbi" means "encompassing green," representing the Confucian ideal of keeping one's mind open and inclusive.

Under the influence of Confucius, Chinese thinkers of later generations all believed that students and scholars should not only increase their knowledge, but also and more importantly, broaden their minds and enhance their spiritual ethos. In other words, they should continually seek the greater meaning and value of life. Many modern scholars think the theory on the perspective on life is the most valuable feature of Chinese philosophy. It all began with Confucius.

2. Laozi's Philosophy of Non-action

The book Laozi was written around the sixth century BC. The author is generally believed to be Lao Dan, or Laozi – a recluse who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period $770-476 BC$. Few records have survived about Lao Dan, who was said to have once held a low civil position in the royal court, in charge of the archival records of the Zhou Dynasty $1046-256 BC$. Yet, due to his great learning, even Confucius was said to have traveled miles to consult him.

Laozi $Laozi$, also known as Classic of the Way and Virtue $Dao de jing$, consists of just over 5,000 Chinese characters. Its 81 chapters are divided into two parts, Dao $the Way$ and De $Virtue$. Short as it is, the book has played a tremendous role in the development of Chinese culture. It became the basis of Daoism, the school of philosophy parallel to Confucianism in ancient China. The thought of Laozi formed the foundation of Daoism, the most influential indigenous school of religion in China. It has also exerted a direct impact on the characteristics, trends of thought and aesthetic sensibilities of the Chinese nation. Today Laozi still plays a role in the development of Chinese thinking.

Laozi was first introduced into Europe possibly as early as the 15th century and has been one of the most translated philosophical works of ancient China. Many of Laozi's enlightening views are based on his philosophy of naturalness and non-action.

Naturalness and Non-action

"Naturalness" is an important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It refers to a natural state of being, an attitude of following the way of nature. Laozi emphasized that everything in the world has its own way of being and development: birds fly in the sky, fish swim in the water, clouds float in the sky, flowers bloom and flowers fall. All these phenomena occur independently and naturally without following any human will, and humans should not try to change anything natural. Laozi admonished people to give up on any desire to control the world. Following the way of nature is the way to resolving conflicts between humans and the world.

"Non-action" is another important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It is the guarantee of "naturalness." Laozi said, “$Dao or the Way$ acts through non-action," by which he did not mean that one should do nothing and passively wait for something to be achieved. Neither did he deny human creativity. What he meant is that human enterprises should be built on the basis of naturalness, not on any attempts to interrupt the rhythm of nature. Human creativity should be in compliance with the ways of nature.

Laozi said, "Great ingenuity appears to be stupidity." This is the essence of "naturalness" and "non-action." "Great ingenuity" refers to the highest level of ingenuity, arising so naturally that it does not resemble ingenuity at all. Ingenuity can be achieved through human effort, but "great ingenuity" is superior to ordinary ingenuity. To Laozi, resorting to deceit is true futility and would accomplish just the opposite result. Those who intend to play tricks are not genuine and therefore are not natural. Deceit is detrimental to naturalness and to the harmony of life.

Zhuangzi $369-286 BC$, the philosopher who carried on Laozi's philosophy, had the following story to tell about a "useless tree":

A carpenter went with his apprentice to the State of Qi. On the way they came across a giant tree by the local temple for the deity of the earth. Its trunk was several dozen meters thick and as tall as a mountain. Its branches could provide shade to several thousand cattle. While people thronged to worship the super tree, the carpenter passed it without taking a look. The apprentice, however, was fascinated. After carefully studying the tree, he ran to catch up with his master and asked, "Ever since I became your apprentice, I have never seen such fine wood. But you just kept walking without even looking at it. Why?" The master replied, "That tree produces useless wood. If you made a boat out of it, the boat would sink. If you made a coffin out of it, the coffin would soon rot. If you made utensils out of it, they would wear out quickly. Its wood is of no use at all. That is why this tree has been able to live so long." The wisdom of the "useless tree" lies exactly in its uselessness, or its naturalness.

Bamboo strips inscribed with the text of Laozi, unearthed in Guodian, Hubei Province. These bamboo strips were buried in the tomb of an aristocrat of the State of Chu, c. 300 BC. This is the earliest version of Laozi discovered so far.

The Philosophy of Non-contention

On the basis of "naturalness" and "non-action," Laozi proposed the view of "overcoming the strong by being weak." The era Laozi lived in was replete with endless wars. Therefore, war was an important theme for philosophers, and anti-war thinking was the norm. Even the great strategist Sunzi advocated "winning a war without fighting it," not to mention the great thinker Confucius, who strongly championed a government based on love. Their contemporary Mozi $c. 468-376 BC$, founder of Mohism, also condemned wars while calling for "love for all."

Calligraphy from Laozi by the Yuan-dynasty calligrapher Xianyu Shu $1246-1302$

According to Laozi, war springs from humanity's bloated desires. Conflict arises out of people's struggles to satisfy their desires, and conflict escalates into war. Therefore, Laozi's philosophy is based on "non-contention." To him, human striving and competitive strife is the root cause of decline; desiring nothing is the natural way of life.

Laozi said, "The greatest virtue is like water." He compared his philosophy of "non-contention" to water, to distinguish it from the law of the jungle. He said, "Water nourishes everything but contends for nothing." To Laozi, humans tend to seek higher positions while water always flows to lower places. Driven by desire, humans like whatever they think is superior while despising whatever they think is inferior. Yet water always flows downward. As the source of life, water nourishes all living things on Earth. No life can exist without water. Water contributes to the world without regard for gain or loss. Remaining low, level and tranquil, water embraces and reflects everything under heaven. The way of water is completely different from the way of people with avid desires.

But the philosophy of Laozi is by no means weak. On the contrary, it is full of strength. According to Laozi, water accumulates great strength in its weakness and quietude. Its strength can break down all barriers in the world. He said, "Nothing in the world is weaker than water. Yet nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong." Water is a typical example of the weak winning over the strong. Water is invincible because it desires nothing and contends for nothing.

A corner of Geyuan Garden in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province. The landscape embodies the concept of naturalness in Daoist philosophy.

Laozi said, "Aware of the strong, one should remain weak." This does not mean that Laozi promoted failure. To become strong, however, one must not oppress the weak. Instead, one should start with one's own weak points, accumulating strength by keeping low, just as water does. Giving up the desire to flaunt one's superiority is the basic way to prosperity.

Remaining weak is not only the way to prosperity, but also the way to preserving life. Laozi regarded fragility as the symbol of life. He explained this with a comparison between life and death: when a person is alive, his body is fragile; when he dies, his body becomes hard and rigid. The same is true with plants: living plants have supple leaves and lovely flowers, while dead plants become dry and hard. Laozi uses these examples to show that the way of the weak is the way to preserving life. The way of the weak is the best way to avoid conflict.

Returning to a Newborn State

Laozi saw the world as a madding crowd of vanity. He chose to live a simple, quiet life, and to keep his mind undisturbed in the face of temptation. He said he would rather remain a "newborn baby."

This does not mean Laozi wanted to remain childishly ignorant. He believed that sages – people with the highest virtue – all resembled newborns. The highest level of one's cultivation was to return to the state of a newborn baby.

The state of the newborn is free of any knowledge, desire, impurity or falsehood. Laozi's state of the newborn refers to "complete innocence." The first cry of a baby when it leaves the mother's womb is pure and clear, which, according to Laozi, is the call of genuine life.

When human beings come into the world, they gradually acquire external knowledge and accept social norms, along with the growth of their bodies. Step by step, their originally pure minds become tainted with chaotic colors. As humans mature, they become more and more hypocritical. The process of acculturation is the process of losing one's true self.

To Laozi, civilization is to a certain degree a departure from the "true self." The development of human culture is a process of "decoration": clothing as decoration of the body, houses as decoration of the way of living, language as decoration of communication, and state politics as decoration of human organization.

Such "decorations" often turn into bloated desires. Desire-driven, human beings fight and deceive one another, leading to war. Laozi made a comparison between the laws of nature and the laws of the human world. Nature takes from the surplus to make up the deficit, such as the wind leveling sand dunes and the water washing away earth and stones. The human world is just the opposite, i.e., robbing the poor and oppressing the weak.

Bloated desire has damaged the external world as well as poisoned the human mind. Laozi said, "Beautiful colors blind the eyes, complex music harms the ears, rich flavors numb taste, while riding and hunting madden the mind." Desire disturbs peace of mind. If immersed in a sea of desire, in the end humans would be submerged.

3. Sunzi's Art of War : Source for All Books on War

Sunzi's Art of War $Sunzi bingfa$, is an ancient classic on war. It consists of 13 chapters in about 6,000 characters. Sun Wu, respectfully called Sunzi, was born sometime between 550 and 540 BC, or toward the end of the Spring and Autumn Period $770-476 BC$. He was a native of the State of Qi but later moved to the State of Wu, where he became the king's trusted strategist. As many of the book's contents bear features of the Warring States Period $475-221BC$, some scholars believe the book was probably written in the middle of that period. It represents the theories of war of the Sunzi School originated by Sun Wu.

Of the more than 3,000 books on war from the pre-Qin $before 221 BC$ period to the Qing Dynasty $1616-1911$, Sunzi's Art of War stands out as the greatest classic. It excels over the other books in terms of strategy design, philosophical grounding and in tactical application. Over the centuries it has been respected as "the source for all books on war."

The Strategic Thoughts of Sunzi

Of the rich strategic thoughts of Sunzi, we have selected just a few for illustration.

The first example is, "Planning before going to war." Before entering a war, one must compare and analyze all factors of both sides. These mainly include: morale, climate, terrain, commanders, and rules. "Morale" refers to the approval or disapproval of the people. The army that has the approval of the people will gain their support, while one without endorsement will lose their support. "Climate" refers to seasonal conditions at the time of war. "Terrain" refers to the distance $far or near$, position $ease or difficulty of access$, size $large or small$, and height $high or low$ of the topography for war. Consideration must also be given to the degree of security or danger in the area. "Rules" refer to regulations governing the army, "Who should carry out orders? What are the respective strengths of the soldiers? Who is responsible for training the troops? Who decides rewards or punishments?" The five aspects for consideration during war were echoed by Carl von Clausewitz $1780-1831$, a German war expert, as "strategic factors." One or two of these factors are insufficient for one to judge the feasibility and consequences of a war. Consideration must be given to all these factors and their combinations. Such holistic thinking is a special feature of Sunzi's Art of War.

The second example is, "One can fight and win a hundred wars if one knows both oneself and the enemy." This is probably the most widely quoted concept from Sunzi's Art of War.

The purpose of considering the five aspects, as introduced above, is actually to know the real situations on both sides. It is not easy to get to know the enemy, because they do their best to keep their secrets and resort to all sorts of deception. Getting to know oneself is not easy, either. What do the people think about the war? What is the capability and state of mind of the commander? How is the morale and training of the troops? These factors are not usually self-evident without thorough analysis, and one may be misled by false impressions. There have been more than a few cases in history where the commander received permission from the ruler to go to war, but without reporting to him that the army was in fact incapable of fighting. The result, needless to say, was always total destruction of the army. This is why Sunzi said, "One can fight and win a hundred wars if one knows both oneself and the enemy. The odds for winning are half and half if one knows oneself but not the enemy. And one is bound to fail if one knows neither oneself nor the enemy." He added, "The odds for winning are half and half if one knows that one's troops are able to attack but does not know the enemy troops are invulnerable to attack. The odds for winning are half and half if one knows that the enemy troops are vulnerable to attack but does not know that one's own troops are not in a position to attack. The odds for winning are half and half if one knows that the opponent is vulnerable to attack and that one's troops are in a position to attack but does not know that the terrain is unsuitable for fighting. Thus an expert of war does not leave anything unclear when declaring war, and also has all sorts of methods to deal with any situation. Victory is certain, if one knows both oneself and the enemy; victory will be complete, if one further knows seasonal and topographic conditions."

The third example, "The army survives by treachery." Sunzi said, "The use of force is actually the use of treachery." In his discussion of "strategy" in On War, Carl von Clausewitz attributes its origin to "treachery."

By "treachery" Sunzi meant that the army "should appear to be incompetent when it is competent, appear to be unprepared to fight when it is prepared, appear to be retreating when it is advancing, appear to be advancing when it is retreating." In other words, it is crucial to deceive the enemy with false impressions.

By treachery, one should "tempt the enemy with gains, attack the enemy when they are in disorder, be prepared for the enemy when they are equal in strength, avoid the enemy when they are stronger, $further$ aggravate the enemy when they are angry, cause the enemy to become arrogant when they are prudent, tire the enemy when they are at rest, sow discord among the enemy when they are united." In a word, treachery is meant to entice the enemy to make all sorts of mistakes, defeating them after they fall into a state of chaos. It also means "attacking the enemy at an unexpected time and place."

It is by using treachery that an expert of war devises strategies at headquarters while directing his army a thousand miles away to victory.

The fourth example is, "Winning a war without fighting it." Sunzi did not approve of large-scale killing and destruction, which he regarded as the worst strategy. To Sunzi, the purpose of a war is to win victory, not to kill as many people as possible. On the contrary, one should avoid destroying the enemy stronghold and avoid destruction of life as much as possible. It is best to take over a city intact and to win victory through minimal killing. This is the principle of a "decent victory." Sunzi went on to say, "Winning every war one fights is not the best one can do; winning a war without fighting is the best one can do. Therefore, the highest art of war is to outwit the enemy strategically, the second level is to foil their diplomacy, the third level is to attack their army, and the lowest level is to attack their city. Attacking the city can only be used as the last resort." In other words, it is not plausible to fight and win wars. It is ideal to achieve victory through means other than war, such as politics, diplomacy, and other deterrent measures. Attacking the city is the least preferable, because, especially in Sunzi's time, the city was host to many ancestral temples and tombs. The defensive side would often fight to their death, resulting in extensive casualties and destruction. These ideas of Sunzi reflect his deep understanding of what we today call "holistic war."

Bamboo strips inscribed with the text of Sunzi's Art of War. Discovered buried in a tomb from early Western Han Dynasty on Mount Yinque, in today's Shandong Province, this is the earliest version of the book discovered so far.

The Dialectical Thinking of Sunzi

The rich philosophical thought in Sunzi's Art of War has aroused greater and greater attention from scholars of ancient Chinese philosophy.

Situations of war are changeable at every moment, perhaps the most changeable of all things in the world. To win a war, the commander must be able to keep abreast of and adapt to such changes. Sunzi said, "There is no fixed way of using force, just as there is no fixed form to water. He who can win a victory by adapting to changes in enemy forces is a master of the art of war." Sunzi draws special attention to the changing dynamics in the opposite direction, saying, "Chaos compares with order, cowardice with bravery, and weakness with strength." These contrasting situations may change into their opposites. Thus, it is not uncommon for an army to turn failure into victory or vice versa. Sunzi reminded commanders to consider gains and losses from both positive and negative sides. He said, "Some routes can be taken but should not be, some enemy troops are vulnerable but should not be attacked, some enemy cities can be captured but should not be, and some enemy territory can be obtained but should not be." This is a warning to commanders to be aware not only of potential gains but also of potential losses. Sunzi further advised commanders, "Do not intercept the enemy on their retreat to their home country, leave a gap when besieging the enemy, and do not approach a desperate enemy." In other words, Sunzi was against going beyond the limits in military operations, because things would turn into their opposites once they reached their extreme.

In analyzing changes in opposing factors in war, Sunzi also emphasized pushing them into their opposites for the benefit of one's own troops. He said, "When we know the enemy situation but they do not know ours, we can keep our troops together while they have to keep them separate. Now that our troops are in one place while the enemy troops are dispersed in ten places, we can strike them with tenfold force. In this way, our troops enjoy an absolute majority while the enemy suffers an absolute minority." Sunzi's Art of War is full of such dialectical thinking. Sunzi said, "By taking a tortuous route deliberately while tempting the enemy with small gains, we can arrive earlier despite having started later than the enemy. This is the strategy of turning a tortuous route into a straight one." As a kind of synopsis, Sunzi said, "The expert commander is able to make the enemy follow his direction, not the other way round."

Sunzi's Cautions Against War

As a military classic, Sunzi's Art of War provides a complete set of strategies and tactics for winning a war. Paradoxically, the book does not encourage rulers to be bellicose but rather warns them again and again to refrain from waging a war without careful consideration.

At the very beginning, the book points out, "The use of force is a matter of life or death for the soldiers, the people and the country." Such a matter can never be taken lightly. At the end of the book, Sunzi raised the warning once more, "A head of state must not wage a war spurred by a momentary anger, and the commander and general must not wage a war spurred by a momentary bad mood. They must take into consideration overall national interests for declaring war or desisting from war. Anger can turn into delight and a bad mood can change into a good mood, but a country lost is lost forever and those killed are dead forever. Therefore, a wise ruler must handle matters of war with extreme care, and good commanders and generals must handle them with the greatest caution as well. This is the cardinal principle for safeguarding the country and the army."

Sunzi's cautions against war were continued in Sun Bin's Art of War $Sun Bin bingfa$, by a strategist in the middle of the Warring States Period. While teaching military professionals how to fight and win wars, Sun Bin $birth and death dates unknown$ also cautioned that, fighting and winning every war is not a good thing; those who are bellicose and intent on winning victory through wars are bound to fail and only bring shame on themselves.

Sunzi's Art of War and Sun Bin's Art of War both warn readers of the great dangers of war. Such thoughts represent, as great strategists, their concern and care for human life. As nuclear war looms larger in today's world, the cautions of Sunzi and Sun Bin certainly deserve the serious attention of those who have the power to push "the button."

The Fanyang sword, a weapon widespread in the late Warring States Period, unearthed in Luoyang, Henan Province

Sunzi's Wisdom Beyond the Military

Sunzi's Art of War was introduced abroad from the Tang Dynasty $618-907$ onwards. A Japanese student named Kibimakibi took the book home in 734 or 752. It was introduced to Korea in the 15th century during the Joseon Dynasty. Up to the 17th century, more than 170 books on the study of Sunzi's Art of War were published in Japan. In 1772, Jean-Joseph-Marie Amiot $1718-1793$, a Jesuit missionary from France, published in Paris his French translation of the book. That year, Napoleon Bonaparte I $1769-1821$ was only three years old. A Russian translation was published in 1860. Later translations of the book include English, German, Italian, Czech, Vietnamese, Hebrew, and Romanian.

After World War II, famous strategists and scholars from different countries took a new interest in Sunzi's Art of War. Bernard Law Montgomery $1887-1976$, British field marshal during that war, declared that all military academies in the world should include the book as required course material. New translations and more research works on the book have been published since that time.

With the spread of Sunzi's Art of War, its influence has gone beyond the military to many other fields, including economics, politics, culture, and diplomacy. Many people regard the book not only as a military work, but also as a work on the philosophy of strategy, referring to the application of military strategies as general methods and principles in all areas of social life. In 2001, online bookseller Amazon listed the book as one of the bestsellers in the humanities category. Many contemporary scholars regard Sunzi's wisdom to be as universal as Confucius' wisdom.

4. The Temple of Heaven: Reverence with Awe and Gratitude

The Temple of Heaven was constructed during the reign of Emperor Yongle $r.1403-1424$ of the Ming Dynasty $1368-1644$, and completed in 1420, about the same time as the Forbidden City. When Emperor Yongle moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing in 1420, it was at the Temple of Heaven that he performed the important ritual of paying tribute to Heaven and Earth.

Nearly 600 years later, the Temple of Heaven still stands intact in the south of Beijing. Covering an area nearly four times as large as the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, with its numerous halls and buildings, attracts visitors from around the world. It not only presents a beautiful spectacle, but also represents the Chinese pursuit of harmony between Heaven and mortals.

Ceremonial Offerings of the Emperor

The Temple of Heaven after a snowfall – a sight of divine purity

The emperor used to offer oblations to Heaven here twice a year, in the spring and winter. The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests was the site of the spring rituals, where the emperor and the ministers would gather for the ceremony signified by the name of the hall. On the Winter Solstice, they would make offerings at the Circular Mound Altar, to show their gratitude for the great compassion of Heaven toward the human world. In times of drought or flood, the emperor would come here with civil and military officials to pray for assistance from heaven.

Only the emperor could pray at the Temple of Heaven. Ordinary people were not allowed access. Yet the idea of showing awe and respect to Heaven was not reserved for the emperor alone, but was shared by the people as well.

The worship of Heaven among the Chinese dates back to over 3,000 years ago. Our ancestors believed that Heaven, also known as the "Heavenly Deity" or "Heavenly Emperor," was the mysterious force that directed all things on Earth, such as natural harvests and personal fate. Heaven stood for righteousness. Natural disasters on Earth were regarded as warnings to people for wrongdoings of one kind or another. In the face of a calamity, people would say, "This is punishment from Heaven." In the second year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu $r. 1875-1908$, the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests was burned down in a big fire. The emperor lost his composure at the news and all the ministers turned ashen gray, believing the disaster to be a bad omen from Heaven. To the ancient Chinese, however, Heaven was more inclined toward love and tolerance, punishing people only occasionally. Thus, our forebears were always grateful to Heaven.

A bird's-eye-view of the Circular Mound Altar

The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests

Holding Nature in Awe

The architecture of the buildings in the Temple of Heaven ingeniously embodies the concept of holding nature in awe. While blue is the thematic color, the three main structures of the Temple of Heaven all stand on triple-terraced white foundations. The colors used invoke a strong sense of purity and sublimity—qualities the Chinese attribute to Heaven.

The Temple of Heaven is supposed to be close to Heaven. Careful visitors will notice the centripetal structures of the two main buildings, the Circular Mound Altar and the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests. This type of architecture gives one a sense of reaching up to Heaven while ascending the steps.

The Circular Mound Altar, as its name suggests, is a round structure with three tiers. When you ascend the steps to the altar, no matter from which of the four directions, you find yourself entering a centripetal world. On the top tier, you find a round stone at the center surrounded by circle after circle of blue flagstones fanning out. The round stone represents the heart of Heaven and is aptly called "Heavenly Heart Stone." The tablet representing Heaven was placed on this stone when the emperor offered oblations on the Winter Solstice.

The process of approaching the Heavenly Heart Stone represents the process of approaching Heaven. The Circular Mound Altar has no physical roof, but is covered only by the boundless sky.

Humanity and Heaven in Communion

Ancient Chinese believed that people could communicate with Heaven, and the Temple of Heaven was built to enable this. The echo of sound at the Circular Mound Altar and the Imperial Vault of Heaven are evidence of what our forebears believed to be communicating with Heaven.

If you stand on the Heavenly Heart Stone on the Circular Mound Altar, you can hear your voice rise from underneath your feet and echo back from the wall around the Altar. The resounding echo, according to the designers, represents Heaven's reply to whatever the speaker asks for.

When you stand inside the outer wall of the Imperial Vault of Heaven, and speak into the wall, a friend at a point farther away along the wall can hear your voice; it resembles making a phone call to someone. This phenomenon, due to the much shorter length of the sound waves compared to the radius of the round wall, gave rise to the nickname "echo wall" for the outer rim of the Vault.

5. Eco-awareness in Traditional Chinese Culture

Protection of the eco-environment is capturing wider international attention today. Eco-ethics and eco-philosophy have arisen in the face of the increasingly serious ecological crisis facing the whole world. Scholars in the field point out that human damage to the natural environment has accelerated to such an extent as to threaten the very existence of human beings themselves.

The main idea of eco-ethics and eco-philosophy is to replace "human-centrism" with "eco-holism," which means that all living things in the earth's biosphere are entitled to equal rights similar to those of human beings, or the rights to survival and development.

When we examine traditional Chinese culture, we also find from ancient times a strong eco-consciousness that is at one with eco-ethics and eco-philosophy.

The Philosophy of "Life"

Slender West Lake in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, a scene of vibrant life

Traditional Chinese philosophy is a philosophy of "life." To Confucius, Heaven is the source of all living things. He regards the "creation of life" as the "Heavenly Way" and the "Heavenly Destination." The Book of Changes $Yijing$, following Confucius' viewpoint, explains, "The continuous creation of life is change," and "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life." Mencius $c. 372-289 BC$, a great Confucian scholar who lived just over 100 years after Confucius, said, “$One should$ love one's family, love the people, and love all living things in the world." Confucian thinkers of later generations carried on the idea of "Heaven and Earth giving birth to all life," and thus emphasized love for and kindness toward all living things. For example, many prominent Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty $960-1279$ echoed their master's view on life. Zhou Dunyi $1017-1073$ said, "Heaven creates life through yang and nurtures life through yin." Cheng Yi $1033-1107$ said, "The nature of life is love." Zhang Zai $1020-1077$ said, "All people in the world are my brothers and all beings in the world are my companions." Cheng Hao $1032-1085$ said, "Those with love regard themselves as the same as other living things in the world." We can see from their thoughts that Confucian love starts from loving one's family and other people, to loving all living things in the world. Humans and other living things are of the same kind and are equal with each other.

Orchids on Rocks, by Zheng Banqiao $1693-1765$, Qing Dynasty. The painting is of a pure and lively style.

In a letter to his family, Zheng Banqiao $1693-1765$, a great painter of the Qing Dynasty $1616-1911$, wrote that he loved all living things in the world, be it an ant or an insect. This, he said, was the "will of Heaven," and that human beings should understand Heaven's will. He was strongly opposed to "keeping birds in a cage," saying, "It is unreasonable to keep them in a cage just to please myself, to oppress their nature to suit my nature!" Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. People have no right to kill them at will. He went on to say that, if people really love birds, they should plant more trees as their home. When people rise in the morning and hear the birds singing, both would be happy. He described such a happy scene as, “$All living things$ each live by their respective nature." Only in this way could human beings share real happiness with their fellow beings.

Dragonfly and Lotus Flower, by Qi Baishi $1864-1957$. The painting represents the artist's focus on an innocent yet vivid style.

Ecological Aesthetics

Related to eco-ethics and eco-philosophy is the eco-aesthetics of traditional Chinese culture.

Ancient Chinese thinkers regarded nature, with human beings included in it, as the world of life. All living things in the world have their own life and state of being. "Life and its state of being is most worthy of appreciation," said Cheng Hao. From such appreciation, people could draw the greatest spiritual delight, according to such philosophers. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties all enjoyed observing "the state of being of living things." Zhou Dunyi, for example, allowed the grass to grow in front of his window without cutting it. When asked why, he explained that the natural growth of grass was in line with his idea of living things. He "observed the creation of life and the state of being of living things in the world" through the grass. The state of being of the grass was similar to the state of being of people, and the experience of this resemblance gave him great pleasure. Cheng Hao "felt great joy from observing living things." He would often appreciate the fish he kept, and enjoyed watching newly hatched chicks. To him, the lively and lovely chicks best represented the "state of being."

Humans at One with Other Living Things

Love for all living things in the world and appreciation for their state of being can often be found in ancient works of art and literature.

A detail from a wall of the Canglang Pavilion in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. The flying eaves of the pavilion, like the wings of a bird, impart a sense of motion, an aesthetic ideal in Chinese architecture.

Dong Qichang $1555-1636$, a famous painter of the late Ming Dynasty, explained that, most artists enjoyed a long life because everything they observed was full of life. Dong You $birth and death dates unknown$, collector and connoisseur of the Song Dynasty, emphasized that artists should depict the state of life, which exists in nature. Therefore, artists should observe and learn from nature. Wang Gai $1654-1710$ of the Qing Dynasty summarized the secret of painting fish as: depicting their liveliness as they swim in water. He compared the happiness of fish in their natural world to the happiness of humans in their natural world. Chinese artists never paint dead animals. The birds, fish, insects, and flowers are all full of vitality under their brush.

A detail from a wall of the Canglang Pavilion in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. The green leaves of Japanese banana trees strikingly set off the white wall.

Ancient Chinese literature has a similar focus. In the poems of the Tang and Song dynasties, when Chinese poetry reached the apex of development, birds and flowers were often depicted as if they had human feelings. In Strange Tales from Make-do Studio $Liaozhai zhiyi$, by Pu Songling $1640-1715$, human beings and other living things are described as being of the same kind. Many of the stories tell of love between men and beautiful women incarnated from plants or animals. "Xiangyu" is such a story. The heroines, Xiangyu and Jiangxue, are incarnated from, respectively, a peony flower and a camellia flower in a monastery on Mount Laoshan $sacred mountain of Daoism$. Xiangyu falls in love with Huang Sheng, a scholar studying at the monastery. Jiangxue also becomes his friend. Unfortunately, a visitor to the monastery grows so fond of the white peony flower that he moves the plant to his home, where it withers up. The heartbroken Huang Sheng composes 50 poems entitled Crying over the Flower. Then the priests of the monastery want to cut down the camellia plant in order to build extra rooms there, but Huang Sheng stops them. Later, a new plant sprouts from where the white peony used to be. In his sleep, Huang Sheng dreams of Xiangyu begging him to water her every day. He follows her request. The plant grows more luxuriant day after day. The next year a large flower blooms, on which sits a tiny beauty. In a blink of the eye, the beauty floats onto the ground. She is none other than Xiangyu. The three of them live happily together. Later, Huang Sheng falls seriously ill. He leaves this message to an old priest, "You will find a red sprout growing vibrantly from underneath the white peony. It will grow into five leaves. That's me." The year after Huang Sheng's death, a plump sprout indeed appears. The old priest diligently waters it. The sprout grows over three years to become a plant more than a meter tall, but it does not blossom. After the old priest dies, his disciple cuts down the plant because it never flowers. Soon afterward, the white peony plant dies, immediately followed by the death of the camellia plant.

Waterside in Tuisi Garden, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. This landscape design represents an idyllic scene of "hawks circling above and fish diving below," an ideal aspired to in Chinese philosophy.

"Xiangyu," like many other tales by Pu Songling, is full of love for all living things in the world. These stories are to signify that humans and other living things are of the same kind, and they share weal and woe together.

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Creativity and Exchange

Over a history of 5,000 years, Chinese people have produced numerous inventions. These include traditional Chinese medicine, silk, porcelain, the compass, paper, printing, and gunpowder. Some ancient landmarks also bear witness to Chinese people's creativity, such as the Great Wall and the Forbidden City.

At the same time, the Chinese people have always kept an open heart toward friends and cultures from other lands. The prosperity of the Tang Dynasty $618-907$, for example, was largely due to Emperor Taizong's $r. 627-649$ open attitude toward the outside world. In the early Ming Dynasty $1368-1644$, Emperor Yongle $r. 1403-1424$ sent envoys to the Western Seas on seven long voyages. They reached as far as Mecca in West Asia and Mozambique in Africa. Wherever the Chinese travelers went, they carried out material and cultural exchanges under the principle of spreading peace.

6. Chinese Characters: Poetic Symbols

The numbers of Chinese language learners across the world have been on the rise in recent years. While those used to phonetic languages often find Chinese characters difficult to learn, some learners may experience the gratification of discovering historical and cultural elements in the process.

Symbols of Sentiment

Some pictographic symbols of Chinese characters express people's keen observation and experience of the world. This is why some European poets have found Chinese characters inspiring to their imagination. Ezra Pound $1885-1972$, for example, was well known for his admiration of Chinese characters, from which he was able to draw creativity. When he saw the character 旦 in the dictionary, he was reminded of the morning sun.

Pound's poetic allusions are not without basis. Take the character 旦, for example – the upper part is a sun symbol, while the lower part represents the horizon. In other words, the character indeed stands for "the sun rising on the horizon." The name of a famous university in Shanghai, Fudan, is composed of the characters 复 and 旦. Taken from a line from the classic, Great Comments on the Book of Documents $Shangshu dazhuan$, meaning, "The sun and moon rise day after day," the characters were chosen to encourage students to learn new knowledge every day.

An oracle bone unearthed in Anyang, Henan Province

A number of characters containing 日 as an element all relate to the rising or setting of the sun. For example, the original complex form of the character for "east," 东, looks like the sun rising from a forest. One of the complex forms of the character for the "morning sun" is written as

. The left part consists of the symbols for "sun" and "grass." The right part is the symbol for "river." The character means "the morning sun rising and shining over the flowing river." The character 暮 was originally written as 莫, resembling a scene of the sun setting into a forest. The left part of the character 明 was originally the symbol for "window," while the right part stands for "moon." Thus, 明 depicts a scene of the moon shining through the window. Is this not a poetic conception? The complex character for "beauty" is written as 丽. It resembles two deer running side by side on a mountain. A beautiful scene, is it not?

A copy of stone-drum inscriptions, dating back to the Warring States Period, by Wu Changshuo $1844-1927$, Qing Dynasty

Graceful Olympic Symbols

The 2008 Olympics Games has adopted a set of symbols to represent the beauty of Chinese calligraphy. By combining certain features of different traditional forms of Chinese characters, the symbols appear both lively and highly representative of the sports they stand for.

Although Chinese is a pictographic language, it does not consist of language pictures. Early pictographic languages were mostly represented by language pictures, which imitated the external characteristics of things. For these languages, language symbols were not much different from pictures, as with the pictographic hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt.

At its beginning, Chinese also included language pictures, which became fewer and fewer during the period of the oracle-bone inscriptions. Most symbols were made up of simple lines. For example, the oracle-bone inscription for "dog" was written as 犬. Instead of a drawing, a few simple yet highly symbolic lines were used to depict the image of a dog.

Tomb tablet to Zhang Jing $official of unknown birth and death dates$, inscribed with characters in official script, a style of calligraphy current in the Han Dynasty. This work later became one of the most popular models for students of calligraphy.

The calligraphic symbols for the Beijing Olympics were designed to represent the "Beauty of Seal Characters." A "seal character" is a type of Chinese calligraphy often carved on seals. There are two types of seal characters: the dazhuan, or greater seal, and the xiaozhuan, or lesser seal. The greater seal is also known as bronze inscription, because it was often used for carving inscriptions on bronzeware in ancient times. The lesser seal was the script the First Emperor of Qin $r. 246-210 BC$ adopted for the whole country, when he united China in 221 BC. Based on and developed from the oracle-bone inscriptions, the seal characters feature smoother and rhythmic lines, and thus have a more appealing appearance.

This is the symbol for "swimming":

The upper part is a symbol for "person," while the lower part is a symbol for "water." The swimmer strokes the water with vigor, imparting a strong sense of motion. If we take a look at the seal character for "walk," 走, we make out a clear connection between the Olympic symbol and the character: the upper part for "swinging arms" and the lower part for "walking legs." The gentle and flowing lines in the lower part of the Olympic symbol are similar to the seal character for "water": 水.

This is the symbol for "track and field":

This symbol is aptly taken from the seal character for "dance":

. The dancer slightly tilts his head to one side, leans his body forward, swings his arms back and forth, and lifts his legs in a running fashion. The symbol, athletic yet graceful, has also been adopted for the "triathlon" and "football."

These symbols demonstrate how modern Olympics have revitalized the charm of the ancient Chinese language.

7. The Silk Road

The Silk Road refers to a transport route connecting ancient China with Central Asia, West Asia, Africa, and the European continent. It appeared as early as the second century and was traveled mainly by silk merchants. The term "Silk Road," or "die Seidenstrasse" in German, was first noted down by the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen at the end of the 19th century.

The Silk Road began in Chang'an $present-day Xi'an, capital of Shaanxi Province$, passing through Gansu and Xinjiang to Central Asia, West Asia, and to lands by the Mediterranean. There were no signs of communication between ancient Chinese civilization and Mediterranean civilization in earlier history. In about the seventh century BC, the ancient Greeks began to learn about an ancient civilization to the east, yet knew little about it. Before the Silk Road, according to archeological findings, there had already existed an intermittent trade route on the grasslands from the Yellow River and Indus River drainage areas to the Euphrates and Tigris, and the Nile drainage areas. Yet real communication between China, Central and West Asian countries, Africa and the European continent did not develop until the opening of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road functioned not only as a trade route, but also as a bridge that linked the ancient civilizations of China, India, the Mesopotamian plains, Egypt, and Greece. It also helped to promote the exchange of science and technology between east and west. The Silk Road served as the main channel for ancient China to open up to the outside world, as well as for fresh impulses from other cultures to enter the country, which contributed a significant share to the shaping of Chinese culture.

Yongchang $"everlasting prosperity"$ brocade of the Eastern Han Dynasty, showing a high level of textile technology

Zhang Qian, Trail Blazer

The pioneer who blazed the trail of the Silk Road was Zhang Qian $c. 164-114 BC$, a general of the Western Han Dynasty $206 BC-AD 25$. In Zhang Qian's time, the Chinese had little knowledge about Central and West Asian countries, Africa or Europe, although they were aware of the existence of many different countries and cultures in faraway places to the west.

During the reign of Emperor Wu $r.140-87 BC$, there were 36 small kingdoms in the Western Regions $present-day Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia$. All of them were later conquered by the Huns, who then posed a direct threat to the Western Han and blocked the dynasty's path west. Under these circumstances, Emperor Wu appointed Zhang Qian to lead a team of more than 100 envoys to the Western Regions. The mission was to unite the Indo-Scythic people against the Huns, who once killed their chieftain. Zhang Qian's team set out in 138 BC. No sooner had they entered the Hexi Corridor $northwest of present-day Gansu Province$, when they were captured by the Huns. After being held under house arrest for over ten years, Zhang Qian and only one other remaining envoy managed to escape and return to Chang'an in 126 BC. Their accounts about the Western Regions were a revelation to the Han emperor and his ministers.

Diamond-pattern embroidery of the Western Han Dynasty

In the next two decades, Emperor Wu launched three major campaigns against the Huns, forcing them to retreat from the Western Regions. In 119 BC, the emperor sent Zhang Qian on a second mission to the Western Regions. This time Zhang Qian went further west, while his deputies reached more than a dozen countries in South and West Asia, and the Mediterranean.

Zhang Qian's two missions to the Western Regions opened up the road to the west. Emperor Wu adopted a series of measures to strengthen ties with the Western Regions, including encouraging Han people to trade there. Soon the route was bustling with caravans of camels carrying goods of all types and reverberating with the tinkling of their bells. Through the Silk Road, trade flourished between China and Central, South and West Asian countries, Africa, and Europe. In 166, envoys from Rome arrived via the Silk Road in Chang'an, where they set up an embassy.

The Silk Road also facilitated active trade between India, Southeast Asia, West Asia, Africa, and Europe. The exchange of new goods and technologies from different continents greatly helped to promote the development of all the civilizations involved.

Bird-and-flower embroidery of the Northern Song Dynasty

Opening to the "West"

The Silk Road exerted an inestimable influence on the lives of the Chinese people. While Chinese culture and technology, such as papermaking and printing, were introduced to countries to the west, China also absorbed many elements from the arts, philosophy and religions of many other countries. This helped to promote an open policy toward other cultures from the Han to Tang dynasties.

The Silk Road highlights a period of history when China looked west for a farther vision of the world. To the east, apart from the islands of the Pacific and Japan, the country faced only a huge ocean. To the west, in contrast, there were many countries in the Western Regions and beyond. By the tenth century, Chinese explorers had already realized there were rich countries, attractive goods and artworks, and different peoples beyond the Western Regions. This aroused great interest in the "west" among ancient Chinese people.

Buddhism, for example, was first introduced to Khotan Kingdom $covering present-day Hetian area of Xin jiang$ in the Western Regions in 87, and then gradually spread to the Central Plains along both the southern and northern routes of the Silk Road. This religion has since exerted a huge influence not only on Chinese beliefs but also on the development of Chinese thinking. Nestorianism and Islam were also introduced to China through the Silk Road.

Cultures and arts from other lands have left valuable legacies along the Silk Road, such as the murals in the Gaochang, Kuche and Dunhuang grottoes. They stand as evidence of a stunning blend of Chinese and western art and culture.

Shiva and Parvati

A mural in Niuche Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang

Murals in the Kuche Grottoes

As Buddhism spread east along the Silk Road, many large temples and grottoes were built in oases, housing exquisite statues and murals. Most of them have been destroyed or damaged over the centuries, yet some have survived, especially the murals in grottoes. Of these, the murals of the Qiuci Kingdom, covering today's Kuche area in Xinjiang, are some of the most remarkable.

While most of the grotto murals in Kuche depict Buddhist tales, a number of them attract special attention by representing a rich mix of the ancient cultures of China, India, Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia.

A mural in Mogui $"devil"$ Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang

Some paintings depict images of the Buddha with a bright aura emitting from his arms, legs and feet. Flying apsaras are seen playing all sorts of musical instruments, such as the pipa, panpipe and flute. The sun god sits on a two-wheeled chariot, and the golden-winged king of birds appears either as a two-headed eagle or an eagle with a human head. Seahorses with wings in flight and doves holding rings of flowers in their beaks bear a clear resemblance to Greek art.

Shiva, wearing a colorful robe, has three human heads, one animal head, and three hands. Parvati $also spelled Parvathi or Parvathy, a Hindu goddess and nominally the second consort of Shiva$ sports earrings and beautiful jewelry on her head, arms and hands. Some frescos depict Persian kings and knights in helmets and suits of armor, and artists in Egyptian-style black wigs holding brushes and palettes in their hands.

Many pictures portray scenes of song and dance. Among the many musical instruments, ranging from those of China $panpipe and ruanxian, a plucked instrument$, Persia $pipa, suona, a woodwind instrument, and the vertical konghou, a plucked instrument with five to 25 strings$, India $bowed konghou and a five-stringed instrument$, and Greece $lila, a plucked stringed instrument$, are also seen a wide variety of flutes, horns and drums.

A mural in Yueshi $"musician"$ Cave, Kuche, Xinjiang

God of Heaven, #a mural in one of the Kuche grottoes

Singing Goddess, a mural in one of the grottoes in Kuche, Xinjiang

Dancers can be divided into solos and duets. Single male dancers usually sport long scarves, which fly in the air as the dancers swirl rapidly. Female soloists wear only capes and necklaces of pearls and jade on their naked bodies. Duets comprise a male and a female of different complexions. The male usually sports Buddhist robes and has his arm on the female's shoulders or around her neck in an intimate manner. The female wears a pair of pants with flared bottoms and plays a bowed konghou in a most feminine posture. Their bodies curve in an S shape, with both the male and female in a duet dance on half-tiptoes. The dancing style represents that of India and West Asia.

Most outstanding of the murals in Kuche are a large number of nude human images, especially of beautiful female bodies. These include many female acolytes listening to the Buddha espousing Buddhist teachings. Highlights are the female dancers with S-shape body contours, full breasts and round buttocks. These paintings show a clear influence of Indian and Greek art, especially Buddhist art from India.

A fine example is the mural depicting what scholars call "Mahamaya $mother of Gautama$ bathing." The young lady, uncovered except for her private parts, stands crossed-legged under a tree with fire-shaped flowers. She sports a few flowing ribbons on her body and jewelry around her neck and wrists. Two maids are kneeling in front of her. Two other girls are walking towards the tree, each holding a jar of water on her shoulder. Their costumes have wave-like patterns with dark-yellow hems and their water jars evoke an ancient Greek style. The mural as a whole features both Greek and Indian artistic influences.

Another fresco bearing clear Greek and Indian connections has a king and his queen as subjects. The king, with a pale yellow complexion, sits cross-legged in the center. His wife sits on his right, resting her left hand on the king's shoulder. The queen wears assorted jewelry on her naked body, including three gold chains around her waist that tie into a knot in the front of her body. She wears snake-shaped leggings, and both she and the king wear earrings. The king has bright eyes and handsome features. He is holding the hand of a child, and a Buddhist monk is kneeling in front of him. A lady in Greek costume behind the child is speaking excitedly to the king. Two servants stand behind the king and queen, with their palms pressed together in Buddhist greeting.

The Kuche grotto murals represent a rich treasure-house left by the Silk Road. They are historical confirmation that the exchanges and integration of different civilizations bring forth the most brilliant flowers of art.

8. Openness of the Great Tang

The Analects $Lunyu$ begins with the Confucian edict: "Is it not a pleasure to meet friends from afar?" "Afar" implies different ways of life and philosophies. Confucius' attitude shows that the Chinese have always highly respected friends from a long way off and aspired to learn from them. At the same time, there existed the wish to present a good image to outsiders. There is another useful quotation from The Analects: "Magistrate Zigao of the Ye County asked about governance. Confucius replied, 'Good governance makes one's neighbors happy and attracts people from faraway places to come and learn from you.’”

The prosperous Tang Dynasty $618-907$ best exemplified the open and inclusive spirit of Chinese culture as advocated by Confucius. Instead of denial or confrontation, the Tang, from the reign of Emperor Taizong $r. 627-649$ onwards, tolerated and absorbed elements from all cultures that it came into contact with, leading to prosperity in all aspects of social life.

Tri-colored glazed pottery statue of a lady with a lovely smile, Tang Dynasty

Arts from All Corners of the World

Both the Tang and the preceding Sui Dynasty $581-618$ presented large-scale song and dance performances at court banquets and ceremonies. The Sui had a nine-section musical symphony, and the Tang added one more section for such occasions. Besides Han music and Xinjiang regional music, both the nine-part and the ten-part musical works included elements from foreign cultures, including India, Burma and Cambodia. Love for music from other lands was prevalent not only among the imperial family and the nobility, but also among the common people. "Every household in Luoyang $secondary capital of the Tang$ is eager to learn the music of diverse nationalities," vividly describes the atmosphere of that time. Musical instruments popular during the period include the pipa and bili $bamboo pipe with a reed mouthpiece, from Persia$, and konghou $plucked instrument with five to 25 strings, from India$. The horizontal flute was originally called a qiang flute. Originally from India, it had been introduced into northwest and southwest China, inhabited by the Qiang people, gradually evolving into today's form. Melody on Splendid Fairy Costumes is said to have been composed by Emperor Xuanzong $r. 712-756$ after he paid a visit to the moon. Actually, the emperor had adapted the piece from the Brahman Melody of the Western Regions. Therefore, it can be regarded as the fruit of the harmonizing of the music of the Han and other nationalities.

Accompanying such music was also the different dances of diverse nationalities. "Swirling Dances" $from an area in today's Uzbekistan$ and "Jumping Dances" $from near present-day Tashkent$ were two of the most famous dance forms of the diverse peoples at the time. "Records of Rituals and Music," in The New Chronicles of the Tang Dynasty $Xin Tangshu$, had this to say about "Swirling Dances": "The swirling dancer stands on a ball, swirling like the wind." Many poets of the time also left behind works on "Swirling Dances." The imperial court often put on shows of minority music and dance. Emperor Xuanzong himself was an excellent player of the flute and Jie $a branch of the Huns$ drum. The court also attracted some outstanding artists, dancers, singers, and musicians from abroad.

Such an open attitude toward international arts was responsible for the flourishing of all forms of the arts during the Tang Dynasty.

Pottery statue of a female pipa player, Tang Dynasty

Religious Diversity

Nestorianism, a branch of Christianity, was introduced into China during the reign of Emperor Taizong. Nestorius $c. 386-c. 451$, the founder, was condemned for practicing heresy and expelled by the Roman Church in 431. He later died in exile in the deserts of western Egypt. His followers seceded from the Roman Church and started spreading their religion to the east. Olopen $birth and death dates unknown$, one of their archbishops, arrived in Chang'an in 635 with his retinue, calling themselves "Nestorians." Emperor Taizong appointed Prime Minister Fang Xuanling $579-648$ to welcome them and assigned the imperial library to them to translate their religious scriptures. The government even provided funds for the newcomers to build a church in the capital city.

Two other religions, Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, were also introduced into China during the Tang Dynasty. Zoroastrianism originated in Persia, where it was twice established as the state religion. It had been introduced by Suguda merchants entering China in the early 4th century, and was officially recognized in the early Tang Dynasty. Manichaeism had been created by Mani $216-c. 274$, a Persian, later banished by the Zoroastrians. After Mani was persecuted to death by the Persian king Bahram I in 277, his followers fled abroad, spreading their religion to many other places. It has been documented that Manichaeism reached the inlands of China as early as the reign of Emperor Gaozong $r. 650-683$. Empress Wu, who ruled the Tang Empire from 690 to 705, approved the teachings of Manichaeism as well.

Seeking Buddhist Truths

Not only did the Tang Empire open its doors to overseas friends and embrace foreign cultures, many of its people also went abroad to study local cultures. Xuanzang $602-664$ and Yijing $635-713$, both great Buddhist masters, were two of the most outstanding examples.

Xuanzang left China for South Asia in 627, and returned to Chang'an in 645. During those 17 years, he visited and studied Buddhism in more than 100 small states in the Western Regions and in and around what is now South Asia. He brought home 657 sets of Buddhist scriptures. Emperor Taizong met and conversed with Xuanzang for more than ten hours in Luoyang, and appointed more than 50 learned monks to help him translate the scriptures. Xuanzang worked as the chief translator and assigned different responsibilities to the other monks: some assisted him in translation, others checked the translations against the original Sanskrit, while some polished the finished translations, and so on. Xuanzang worked day and night over the next 19 years and translated 75 sets of scriptures in 1,335 volumes. He also dictated the 12-volume Tang-dynasty Records of the Western Regions $Datang xiyu ji$, written down by his disciple Bianji $birth and death dates unknown$. The book recounted what Xuanzang had experienced or heard about in the 138 countries or states in the Western Regions, including their geography, transport, climate, products, peoples, languages, history, religions, politics, economies, cultures, and customs. Contemporary scholars today regard the book as a rare reference for the study of South Asian history and philosophy, as well as religious and literary history.

Song-and-music Performance at the Court , by Zhou Fang $birth and death dates unknown$, Tang Dynasty

Yijing also traveled to South Asia to study Buddhism, but he took the sea route. He left Guangzhou $capital of today's Guangdong Province$ in 671, and traveled through Sumatra to arrive in India. He brought back 400 sets of Buddhist scriptures. Empress Wu came out of her palace to welcome Yijing with a splendid ceremony. Later Emperor Zhongzong $r. 705-710$ set up a translation institute for Yijing at the Dajianfu Temple in Chang'an. As many as 83 translators worked for 16 years, to accomplish the translation of 56 scriptures in 230 volumes. These included 13 people from other lands, as well as 32 officials, of whom 11 were prime ministers. Such a large-scale and high-level translation team is strong evidence of the Tang Empire's openness to foreign cultures.

Colored pottery of a man of minority origin, Tang Dynasty

Chang'an as an International Metropolis

The Tang capital Chang'an was probably the largest metropolis in the world at the time. It ran nearly 10,000 meters from east to west, and more than 8,000 meters from north to south. More than a million people lived in the 84-square-kilometer city, 200,000 more than the population of Constantinople, then capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Its open and inclusive attitude toward foreign cultures enabled Chang'an to develop into the most prosperous international metropolis in the world of the time. Foreign envoys, merchants, and students were a common sight in the city. The Honglu Temple received envoys from more than 70 countries, most coming in large groups. Japan, Silla $Korea$, and Tazi $including today's Syria, Kuwait, Iraq, and Libya$ were the countries that dispatched the largest numbers of envoys to China. Japan sent more than ten delegations of "envoys to the Tang," with delegates from all walks of life, including students, scholar-monks, craftspeople, and specialists in different fields. Every delegation consisted of several hundred people, the largest group numbering as many as 800. One to two hundred students from Silla studied regularly in Chang'an. According to Old Records of the Tang Dynasty $Jiu tangshu$, in the year 837 there were 216 students from Silla in Chang'an.

Both aristocrats and the common people were keen on foreign apparel, foods and customs, with "Minority Folk Fashions" highly popular in Chang'an. "Minority Fashions" referred to attire from the Western Regions and some lands in what is today's Uzbekistan. They featured short jackets with narrow sleeves – convenient for traveling or hunting on horseback. The capes that Tang women enjoyed wearing were introduced from India. Polo, popular during the Tang, was originally a Persian sport. It was first introduced into Turkey and India, and then into China. It has been recorded in historical documents that Emperor Xuanzong and Emperor Xizong $r. 874-888$ were great polo players. Many merchants from Central Asia and West Asia ran wine shops, jewelry shops, and sundry stores in Chang'an. Their wine shops attracted customers not only due to their famed wines but also because of the beautiful chorus girls from the Western Regions. It became vogue to patronize wine shops with these chorus girls. The great Tang poet Li Bai $701-762$ wrote several poems on their beauty, such as: "As beautiful as flowers, / The minority women smile like the spring breeze in the wine shops." "With nowhere to visit at the end of spring, /Smiling I enter a wine shop with women from other lands."

Tri-colored pottery of a camel carrying musicians, Tang Dynasty

These popular practices of adopting outside styles and customs represented the youthful dynamism of the Tang Dynasty, garnering high admiration from scholars of later generations.

9. Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Seas

On the 11th day of the 7th lunar month of 1405, a huge fleet of 208 ships appeared on the blue seas of the earth. With more than 27,500 people aboard, it was the greatest fleet with the largest crews the world had ever seen. Carrying cargoes of porcelain, silk, tea, and numerous other treasures, the fleet navigated the South China Sea, passing through the Strait of Malacca, and traversing the Indian Ocean to arrive at countries on the coasts of Asia and Africa. Over the next 28 years, six more fleets of a similar scale, with crews totaling more than 100,000 people, left China for further voyages to the Western Seas and arrived in more than 30 countries along the way – "Western Seas" being the term used in ancient China to refer to the regions west of the South China Sea. In West Asia, they visited the holy city of Mecca; in Africa, they reached as far as the port of Beira $in present-day Mozambique$.

The commander of the fleet was Zheng He $1371-1433$, an important official in the court of Emperor Yongle $r. 1403-1424$ of the Ming Dynasty $1368-1644$. Born to a Muslim family, Zheng He also believed in Buddhism and Mazu $Chinese goddess of the sea$. Intelligent and knowledgeable about navigation, he was entrusted by the emperor to direct all seven adventurous missions.

Advanced Navigation Civilization

From the 15th century on, humans had accelerated their pace in combing the oceans. Christopher Columbus $1451-1506$ came upon the continent of the Americas in 1492 by traveling across the Pacific with his Spanish fleet. The Portuguese fleet of Vasco da Gama $1460-1524$ passed around Africa's Cape of Hope and across the Indian Ocean, to arrive at Calicut on the west coast of India in 1498. Ferdinand Magellan $1480-1521$ and his Spanish fleet claimed the first round-the-world navigation in 1522.

Compared with these explorers, Zheng He's voyages took place much earlier and on a much larger scale. On each of the seven voyages to the Western Seas, his fleet consisted of more than 100 ships, with 62 large and medium-sized ships forming the main body. Crews and other personnel added up to more than 20,000. Columbus' fleet had only three ships and an 88-member crew. Obviously, Zheng He's fleets were unparalleled during his time in terms of size, navigation technology, organization and amenities, in order to be capable of making those successful long trips.

Zheng He's ships were also constructed with advanced technology and craft. A large-size ship in the fleet was 150 meters long, 60 meters wide and 12 meters deep. It had a cargo capacity of about 1,000 tons, with four levels to house more than 1,000 crew and passengers. The foredeck had an area of 9,000 square meters, equal to the size of half a football field. The ship had nine masts with 12 sails. Its iron rudder needed more than 200 people to lift. The large ships of Zheng He's fleet would still look extraordinary even today.

Spreading Peace

When Emperor Yongle sent Zheng He on the missions to the Western Seas, he expected to show off the prosperity of the Ming Empire as well as to put his ideals into practice, of making friends with and spreading peace to other countries near and far. Zheng He's huge fleet was indeed proof of the strength of China at the time. At the same time, the navigator was also fulfilling the emperor's wishes of developing China's international relations.

Blue-and-white plate from the Xuande reign $1426-1435$ of the Ming Dynasty

Zheng He's family chronicles, which came to light in the 1930s, include records of Emperor Yongle's exhortations before his departure: "Follow the ways of Heaven and the world, do not bully small or weak countries, and spread the blessing of peace." On all his voyages Zheng He strictly followed the emperor's instructions.

Although Zheng He brought a large armed force along on all seven long journeys, only on three occasions during those 28 years did he deploy troops. The first time was to wipe out pirates in the Palembang area $southeast of present-day Sumatra$, to restore order and transport routes. The second and third times he used force was in self-defense: against an attack by a king of Ceylon $now Sri Lanka$, and against a gang of rioters from the Sumatra area. None of these acts constituted a violation of the principle of peace laid down by Emperor Yongle.

Of the many places that Zheng He's fleets reached, they never occupied an inch of anybody's territory, nor took away the slightest bit of anybody's property, nor left a single soldier on anybody's land. Instead, they always presented all sorts of gifts to local kings and their families, chieftains at different levels, and to Buddhist temples. The gifts ranged from cash, silk, porcelain and clothing, to utensils made of iron, copper, silver and gold. Zheng He even brought bricks, tiles and glazed tiles for locals to build temples in some parts of Southeast Asia. Following principles of fair trade, Zheng He's crew bartered porcelain, silk, tea, and metal utensils with local governments and ordinary citizens for jewelry, spices, medicine, and rare animals. They also introduced to the countries they visited items such as: the Chinese calendar, Chinese medical sciences, and technologies in farming, manufacturing, navigation and shipbuilding.

Blue-and-white plate from the Hongwu reign $1368-1398$ of the Ming Dynasty

Celadon vase from Yaozhou Kiln of the Song Dynasty

On every one of his missions, Zheng He would bring envoys from other lands back to China. For example, in the ninth lunar month of 1422 $20th year of Emperor Yongle's reign$, more than 1,200 envoys from 16 states in Southern Africa came to visit China with Zheng He's fleet. There were also several kings who traveled on Zheng He's ship back to China. Three of them – from Sulu $now Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines$, Borneo $today's Kalimantan Island$ and Gran Molucas $now Mindanao Island of the Philippines$ – stayed in China until they died due to illness. When the king of Borneo died in 1408, Emperor Yongle called a recess of the court for three days of mourning.

People in some Asian countries still retain fond memories of Zheng He's visits. One can find many commemorative buildings in these countries, such as the temple named after Zheng He in the Indonesian port city of Semarang. In the Malacca Straits area there can be found a well said to have been dug by Zheng He. In 2004, in celebration of the 30th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic ties between Malaysia and China, the Royal Opera House in Kuala Lumpur staged a large bilingual song-and-dance drama in Chinese and Malay. Based on Sejarah Melayu, or The Malay Annals, the drama presented the story of Princess Hanbaoli, daughter of Emperor Yongle, who was escorted by Zheng He and a 500-member retinue to her wedding with Sultan Mansur Shah of Malacca. This is one of the many fine stories about the travels of Zheng He.

10. The Great Wall

No discussion about Chinese culture is complete without mention of the Great Wall. Through more than 2,000 years from the seventh century BC to the 16th century AD, 19 dynasties built parts of the Great Wall, adding up to over 100,000 kilometers. Three major renovations of the Great Wall took place in the Qin $221-206 BC$, Han $206 BC-AD 220$, and Ming $1368-1644$ dynasties. The Great Wall of today is mainly the legacy of the Ming-dynasty renovations. It meanders for 6,700 kilometers from Jiayu Pass in the western desert to Shanhai Pass on the eastern seashore. With many gaps along the Wall, the 600-kilometer-long section in the northern outskirts of Beijing is the best preserved.

Aspiration for Peace

The Great Wall is unparalleled in the world in its scale and span of construction, as well as for the great quantities of labor and the degree of difficulty involved. During the reign of the First Emperor of Qin $r. 246-210 BC$, one out of every 20 people took part in the project. Why did the Chinese build the Great Wall? There must be a reason for this ancient nation to build such a wall over a time span of more than 2,000 years.

The earliest parts of the Great Wall were built amid incessant wars. Suffering from the devastating damage of wars, people realized that building a wall to protect lives was better than burying the dead in trenches. Building walls was extremely hard labor, sometimes even at the cost of life itself. Compared with bloody wars, however, people would rather choose the former. Thus the Great Wall was built with the basic goal of safeguarding peace. It represented people's longing for a peaceful life.

An observation and defense tower on the Great Wall

The Great Wall played a significant role in history. It certainly served the purposes of military defense in the age of cold steel, especially in preventing northern peoples on horseback from attacking people in the south who were mostly engaged in farming. It provided the cultivators with a sense of security as well as actual protection, so they could till their lands and harvest their crops in peace.

Separation and Integration

The geographic structure and climatic patterns of China has led to the development of two distinct cultures from ancient times. The south, with arable land and a warm climate, was suited for agriculture. The north, with pastoral land and a cold climate, was suited for animal husbandry. The south had a relatively developed agricultural civilization, while the north was in a relatively less developed state. Stability was important for an agricultural population. The northern peoples, on the other hand, were highly mobile due to the nature of pastoral life. The limited and unstable output of animal husbandry made it necessary for the northern peoples to depend on the agricultural goods of the southern peoples. Historically, invasions of the south by nomadic peoples of the north were often more out of necessity than the desire for expansion.

From the Qin of more than 2,000 years ago to the later dynasties, the northern peoples who often invaded the south included the Xianyun, the Hun, the Tujue, the Huihe, the Qidan, the Nüzhen, and the Mongolian. Southern troops were often at a disadvantage in the face of the mobile northern cavalry. Under such circumstances, the Great Wall provided an effective, though not perfect, defense line.

In this way, the Great Wall separated the peoples of the south and the north, while posing a barrier to communication. However, it did serve to minimize conflicts between the two, making it possible for each to develop on their own. The Wall protected the agricultural economy and advanced the mode of production in the south. At the same time, it forced the northern peoples to give up plundering the south and to develop their own civilization. This laid the foundation for later exchange and communication between the southern and northern cultures.

Chinese history would have been another story without the Great Wall. Dr. Sun Yat-sen $1866-1925$, who led the Revolution of 1911 that overthrew the Qing Dynasty $1616-1911$, said, "Seen from today, if it had not been for the protection of the Great Wall, Chinese civilization would have been interrupted by the northern peoples in the late Qin or early Han dynasties, long before the Song $960-1279$ and Ming dynasties. In that case, there would not have been the prosperity of the Han and Tang $618-907$ dynasties, or the integration of southern and northern peoples."

Part of the Mutianyu section of the Great Wall, in the northern suburbs of Beijing

In time, economic zones came into being along the Great Wall, especially at its several dozen passes, where people from both sides carried out economic and cultural exchanges. For a long time in history, the agricultural economy in the south and the pastoral economy in the north complemented and depended on each other through such exchanges. In this way, the Great Wall played a role in bringing in a new economic structure to the benefit of both sides.

Spirit of the Great Wall

The hardships involved in building the Great Wall are beyond imagination. Numerous people had to leave their homes and families to go north, where they toiled for years. Many lost their lives on the worksites, over a period of more than 2,000 years. A Chinese idiom vividly expresses the Great Wall as the achievement of many, "Efforts joined by many can build the Great Wall."

Of the many legends about the Great Wall, the story of Lady Mengjiang is the most moving. Lady Mengjiang lived during the reign of the First Emperor of Qin. After her husband was recruited to build the Great Wall, she missed him so much that she traveled many miles to see him. When she finally arrived at the construction site, a fellow countryman told her that her husband had died and was buried under the Wall. A heartbroken Lady Mengjiang cried for three days and nights until, legend has it, the Great Wall collapsed one section after another.

People paid an enormous price for the building of the Great Wall. The legend of Lady Mengjiang represents the sufferings of the people. It also expressed their hatred for the tyrannical First Emperor of Qin. It was not a condemnation of the Great Wall itself, because the people had no reason to resent this defensive work that protected them. The builders of the Wall were no "cowards who chose to close themselves up," as some people so claim, but heroes with a unanimous will and unparalleled strength.

Over the centuries, the Great Wall has become a symbol of consolidation and strength for the Chinese people. It symbolizes that great achievement can be made with a common will and concerted effort. For example, the national anthem, composed during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression $1937-1945$, called on the people to "build our new Great Wall with our flesh and blood."

Part of the Simatai section of the Great Wall, in the northern suburbs of Beijing

Wonder of the Great Wall

The wonder of the Great Wall lies in its magnificent and varied structure. As a defense work, the Great Wall is by no means a monotonous long stretch of wall. Instead, it consists of different parts with different defensive purposes. These include blockhouses, garrison towns and passes built at strategic points, as well as beacon towers along the wall.

The Simatai section built near Beijing in the Ming Dynasty best represents the undulating and rhythmic flow of the Great Wall. As a popular saying has it, Simatai epitomizes the wonder of the Great Wall for being the most precipitous part of it.

Winding along a steep ridge of a range of mountains, the Simatai section rises to the crests of mountains at some points and falls into deep valleys at others. The most breathtaking parts of the Simatai section are called Cloud Ladder and Heavenly Bridge. The Cloud Ladder is much narrower than the normal width of the Wall $three-to-five meters on average$, the narrowest part being only half a meter wide. With perilous cliffs on either side, it indeed resembles a ladder along which one can climb up into the clouds. Up at the top of the Cloud Ladder, one comes to the Heavenly Bridge, the 100-meter-long narrow belt of wall on the mountain ridge, with deep valleys on either side.

A precipitous part of the Simatai section of the Great Wall

The highest point of the Simatai section is Wangjing $Overlooking the Capital$ Tower, at an altitude of 986 meters. From here, one can capture a panoramic overview of the Great Wall stretching and winding into the east and west. One can also look into the far distance to the south, for an indistinct view of the capital Beijing. Hence, the name of the tower. This is one of the best places to appreciate the magnificence and near-surreal beauty of the Great Wall.

11. The Forbidden City: Glorious and Awe-inspiring

The Forbidden City, also known as the Palace Museum, is where 24 emperors of the Ming $1368-1644$ and Qing $1616-1911$ dynasties ruled China from the 15th century to the early 20th century. It is the most splendid palace complex in Beijing and one of the best preserved of its kind in the world. Its awe-inspiring architecture and huge variety of collections stand as living evidence to the rich historical essence of this country.

Concealed Contours of a Dragon

When Emperor Yongle $r. 1403-1424$ decided to make Beijing his capital, he also decided to follow the design of the central axis of Dadu – the name for Beijing when it served as the capital of the Yuan Dynasty $1206-1368$. Of course, the Ming emperor had also commissioned a large-scale redesign of the overall structure of his new capital. Construction of the magnificent imperial city took nearly 1 million people many decades to complete.

Night view of the Front Gate on Tiananmen Square

The Ming capital was built along an eight-kilometer-long axis running south to north. Buildings and landscapes were laid out on either side of the axis. The overall design featured symmetry between left and right, along the axis, giving the city a unique sublime order.

The axis starts from the Gate of Eternal Stability in the south. On the east side of the axis stands the Temple of Heaven and on the west is the Temple for the Divine Cultivator, the two being in approximate symmetry. As sites for offering sacrifices to Heaven and the Divine Cultivator, the two structures truly deserve the status of being the starting points of the city's axis. Originally, a straight boulevard led to the grand Front Gate. A huge stone archway and a large stone bridge used to stand north of the Front Gate, which represented the first rise of the axis south of the city. Further north stood the China Gate, which was demolished in 1959 to make way for Tiananmen Square.

A bird's-eye-view of the Forbidden City

Located to the north of the square is the Gate of Heavenly Peace. During the Ming it was called Gate for Receiving Heavenly Favor. To the east of Tiananmen is the Imperial Family Shrine $where the emperor would pay homage to his ancestors$, and to its west, the Imperial State Shrine $honoring the gods of land and grain$. Today, the former is known as the Working People's Cultural Palace, and the latter has become Sun Yat-sen Park. Placing the two temples on an equal footing has a great deal to do with China's history as an agrarian society. Through the Gate of Uprightness and then the Meridian Gate, the central axis passes into the Forbidden City, and extends all the way to its northern gate, Gate of Divine Might. To the north of the Gate of Divine Might is Prospect Hill, which provides a backdrop for the Forbidden City. The central peak of the hill, graced by a pavilion, is directly above the central axis. Further north to Prospect Hill is the Gate of Earthly Peace. From there a straight boulevard leads to the Drum Tower and the Bell Tower, which mark the northern end of the central axis of ancient Beijing.

Golden Water Bridges to the north of the Tiananmen Rostrum

The Forbidden City, covering an area of 720,000 square meters, consists of the Outer Court $southern part$ and the Inner Court $northern part$. The Outer Court is where the emperor ran state affairs, and the Inner Court is where the imperial family lived. The main structures of the Outer Court are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony and the Hall for Preserving Harmony. The Hall of Supreme Harmony is located in the very center of the Forbidden City. To the east of the three main halls is the Hall of Literary Glory and to their west stands the Hall of Military Eminence, for civil and military administration respectively. The main structures of the Inner Court are the Hall of Heavenly Purity, the Hall of Union and Peace, and the Hall of Earthly Tranquility. On either side of these halls are the Eastern Six Palaces and the Western Six Palaces, living quarters for the imperial concubines. There are over 8,000 halls and rooms in the Forbidden City, all laid out in a precise manner along the central axis or to its sides.

The central axis that runs from the south to the north of Beijing resembles the undulating contours of a dragon. The buildings along the central line and on either side of it vary in design and rhythm. Of the eight-kilometer-long axis, the section from the Gate of Eternal Stability to the Front Gate represents its gentle beginnings, while the section from the Front Gate through the Forbidden City to Prospect Hill is the peak, and the section from Prospect Hill to the Drum and Bell Towers concludes it. Appreciating Old Beijing is thus like appreciating the three stages of a musical movement.

The Colors of the Forbidden City

No one can visit the Forbidden City without marveling at its unique application of color.

Yellow and vermilion are the thematic colors of the Forbidden City. Yellow was symbolic of imperial power in ancient China, and red has always been symbolic of happiness. Being bright colors, they give a sense of warmth and passion.

All of the nearly 1,000 individual buildings in the Forbidden City have roofs covered with golden glazed tiles and vermilion walls. The red color of the numerous pillars supporting the buildings also has a strong visual impact. On a clear day, the panorama presented by glistening golden tiles on top of red buildings under a blue sky resembles a dreamland among the green trees surrounding the Forbidden City.

Besides yellow and red, other colors are used to produce a balanced effect. For example, the beams under the eaves are usually painted with pictures in cool colors such as blue and white. Red pillars, doors and windows usually stand on a white stone floor. The gold and red buildings, against the huge white marble terraces on which they stand, form a striking contrast in color. Take the Hall of Supreme Harmony, for example. When observed from its east side, the hall resembles a colorful heavenly palace floating in a kingdom of white clouds – the enormous three-tiered marble terrace on which it stands.

While bright yellow and red colors give prominence to imperial power, blue, white and similar cool colors add an element of grace to the buildings. For example, the spacious courtyard between the Gate of Uprightness $to the south$ and the Gate of Supreme Harmony $to the north$ is entirely paved with gray bricks. Five marble bridges span the Inner Golden River just inside the Gate of Uprightness. Against this gray background rises the Gate of Supreme Harmony in radiant gold and red, a vision of extreme magnificence.

Night view of one of the two watchtowers of the Forbidden City, at its northeast and northwest corners.

No visitor to the Forbidden City can help but be stricken by the awe-inspiring sights of this historic wonder in the center of Beijing.

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